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Lucius Septimius Severus was a Roman emperor from 193 to 211 AD. He was of Libyan descent from Lepcis Magna and came from a prominent local Punic family, which in the past held both senatorial and consular status. He visited Rome for the first time in 163 during the reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. With the protection of his cousin Caius Septimius Severus, he entered the Senate in 170. Later, his cousin went to Africa to serve as a proconsul in 173-174 and chose Lucius Septimius Severus as his legate.
The rise of Septimius to emperor began after the assassination of emperor Commodus in 192
How Septimius Severus Came to Power
The successor of Commodus was Petrinax, who wasn’t welcomed by the Praetorian Guard. It led to their revolt and the sooner assassination of the emperor. The Praetorian Guard proceeded to auction off the imperial throne. They wanted to choose a person who would pay the most, being promised the support of the Praetorian Guard.
The first candidate was Clodius Albinus, governor of Britain. The second was Pescennius Niger, governor of Syria, while the third candidate was Septimius Severus, who governed the province of Pannonia Superior on the Danube frontier. Each candidate was defended by three legions apiece and had a powerful military base. Septimius Severus had an advantage in terms of propaganda and location, as Pannonia was the closest of these provinces to Rome. Severus prevented a possible clash with Clodius Albinus in Britain by promising him the title of Caesar and a place in the imperial succession. Septimius Severus was recognized by the Senate as emperor in 193. With his accession, that year became known as “The Year of Five Emperors.”
Later, Septimius Severus replaced the existing Praetorian Guard with a larger bodyguard gathered from the Danubian legions under his leadership. Moreover, he raised three new legions and increased Rome’s number of vigils, urban cohorts, and other units. Eventually, Septimius organized a campaign to march to the eastern provinces to eliminate his rival, Niger. His army defeated Niger and drove his forces out of Thrace. While in the East, Severus turned his forces against the Parthian vassals.
Wars
Septimius Severus quickly conquered the kingdom of Osroen and Adiabene, taking the titles Parthicus Arabicus and Parthicus Adiabenicus to celebrate these victories. To strengthen his reputation and try to connect his new dynasty with the Antonines dynasty, he declared himself the son of the now-deified former emperor Marcus Aurelius and the brother of the deified Commodus. Moreover, he gave his eldest son M. Aurelius Antoninus (later emperor Caracalla), the title of Caesar. This last step led him to a direct conflict with his former ally, Clodius Albinus, who was initially given this title in exchange for his loyalty. Realizing that Severus had intended to abandon him, Albinus rebelled and crossed over with his legions to Gaul. Severus hurried west to meet Albinus at the battle of Lugdunum and defeated him in a bloody battle in 197. After defeating Albinus, Septimius Severus became the only emperor of the Roman Empire.
Emperor
In 197 AD, Severus again went to the eastern provinces, where the Parthian Empire used his absence to besiege Nisibis in Rome-occupied Mesopotamia. After breaking through the Parthian siege there, he continued the attack on the Euphrates, attacking and plundering the Parthian cities of Seleucia, Babylon, and, ultimately, the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. Then Septimius turned against the fortress of Hatra in Iraq but could not take it after two siege attempts. Having reached an agreement on saving a person with Hatra, Septimius declared victory in the East, having assumed the title of Parthicus Maximus.
Then Severus went to Egypt in 199 AD, reorganizing the province. Returning to Syria to stay for a year (late 200 – early 202 AD), Severus finally returned to Rome in the summer of 202. He wanted to celebrate his decade with a victorious game and also to present his son Antoninus for a wedding with the daughter of his confidant.
In the autumn of the same year, Severus traveled to his homeland in Africa, making a trip to the hometown of Lepcis Magna and Utica, and Carthage. In Lepcis Magna, he conducted an active program for the construction of monuments, providing columns with streets, a new forum, a basilica, and a new harbor. He also used this time to crush the desert tribes (especially Garamantes), who were pursuing the African borders of Rome. Severus expanded and strengthened the African border, even expanding the presence of Rome in the Sahara, thereby limiting the raider actions of these border tribes who could no longer attack Roman lands with impunity and then flee back to the desert.
Returning to Italy
Then Severus returned to Italy in 203 AD, where he remained until 208 AD, conducting secular games in 204 AD. After the murder of his prefect, Plautianus, Severus replaced him with a lawyer Papinian. His patronage of this new prefect and the lawyers of Ulpian and Paul made the era of the northerners gold for Roman jurisprudence. In 208, small battles on the border of Roman Britain gave Severus a reason to start a campaign there that would last until his death in 211. With this campaign, Severus was hoping for a chance to gain military glory.
Moreover, he brought with him his sons Antoninus and Geta to provide them with some administrative and military experience necessary to retain imperial power.
Plans and Achievements
The intentions of Severus in Britain were to conquer the whole island and completely subordinate it to Roman rule. To this end, Severus completely repaired many forts along Hadrian’s wall with the intention of using this wall as a base for the campaign to conquer the north of the island of Britain. Leaving Geta in the south, Severus and his son Antoninus campaigned in the north, especially in current Scotland. The campaign was mixed for the Romans: the local Caledonian tribes did not meet with the Romans in open battle and participated in partisan tactics against them, which led to heavy losses for the Romans.
However, by 210 AD, the northern tribes sued the peace, and Severus took the opportunity to build a new forward base at Carpow on Tay for a future campaign. He also took the title of Britannicus for himself and his sons to commemorate this victory. This success was short-lived, however, since the tribes soon rebelled. By this time, Severus could not continue his campaign against them.
Severus’s reign witnessed reforms both in the provinces and in the armed forces, which had long-term consequences. He divided the three areas of the Legion of Pannonia and Syria to prevent future governors from revolting. Britain became divided into two provinces, although it is not clear whether Severus or his son and successor, Caracalla, did it.
Military Reforms
Septimius Severus is also known for its army reforms. He significantly increased the strength of the army to ensure its loyalty and raised the annual salary of soldiers from 300 to 500 denarii. Historians Dio and Herodian criticized Severus for this wage increase, mostly because it put more financial pressure on the civilian population to support a large army.
Moreover, Severus lifted the ban on marriage that existed in the Roman army, giving soldiers the right to take wives. This measure was seen as a positive reform since it granted legal rights to the wives of soldiers who, prior to the ban, did not have legal protection because their relations were informal and did not have binding legal force. Severus was so concerned about the dedication of the army that, on his deathbed, he was said to have advised his two sons: “Be good to each other, enrich the soldiers, and curse the others.”
Interesting Facts about Septimius Severus
- Embodying a symbol of Rome’s diverse reach, Septimius Severus broke ground as the first African emperor. Hailing from Leptis Magna in modern-day Libya, his ascension to power in 193 AD affirmed that even the furthest stretches of the Empire could shape Rome’s destiny.
- A monumental testament to Severus’ rule is the arch of Septimius Severus, situated in the heart of the Roman Forum. Towering at approximately 23 meters in height and spanning 25 meters in width, the arch is an impressive example of Roman triumphal architecture.
- As a young man of 18, Septimius Severus first visited Rome in 163 AD during the shared reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Little did he know then that he was destined to shape the future of the very city he set foot in.
- The untimely assassination of Emperor Commodus in 192 AD was a turning point for Septimius. He was then serving as the governor of Pannonia Superior, and the political turmoil catalyzed his ambitious climb to the ultimate seat of power.
- In the wake of chaos following Commodus’ death, the Roman Senate officially recognized Septimius Severus as emperor in 193 AD. It marked a crucial moment when the senatorial aristocracy accepted a ruler from the provinces.
- After a triumphant victory over his rival Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum in 197 AD, Septimius Severus emerged as the uncontested emperor of Rome. This event signaled a new era of stability in the Roman Empire.
- Severus was dedicated to strengthening Rome’s frontiers during his reign, notably in Africa. By expanding Rome’s presence in the Sahara, he reinforced the southern borders and demonstrated the Empire’s ability to penetrate even the most inhospitable terrains.
- Septimius Severus brought about significant reforms in both provincial government and military operations, instigating long-lasting effects. These reforms led to a more centralized administration and a stronger loyal army.
- In an attempt to secure the loyalty of his soldiers, Severus significantly increased the army’s size. He further incentivized their allegiance by hiking the annual salary of soldiers from 300 to 500 denarii. This move not only cemented their fidelity but also boosted morale and the overall effectiveness of the Roman military.
- Addressing the personal lives of his soldiers, Severus lifted the long-standing ban on marriage within the Roman army. This act passed in the late 2nd century AD, allowed soldiers the liberty to take wives, thereby transforming the army from a corps of single men into a force composed of family men, a change that undoubtedly had significant social implications.
Death
Although his military expenses were expensive for the empire, Severus was a strong and capable leader. The Roman Empire reached the greatest extent under his rule – more than 5 million square kilometers. His expansion of the Limes Tripolitanus provided Africa with the agricultural base of the Empire. His victory over the Parthian Empire was decisive for some time, protecting the empire from Nisibis and Singara and establishing the status quo of Roman rule in the region until 251.
Severus’s campaign was interrupted when he fell ill. He retired to Eboracum (York) and died there in 211. Although his son Caracalla continued the campaign the following year, he soon agreed to peace. The Romans never again went deep into Caledonia. Soon after, the frontier was forever allotted south to Hadrian’s wall.
